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A Guide to Essay Writing
Important - you should consult your tutor if you are uncertain about which referencing style is appropriate for each subject.
Overview
Each discipline (and sometimes, each lecturer) has its own requirements when it comes to the writing of essays. The intention of this brief guide is to provide you with some information which should be kept in mind when preparing your essays. The information provided below should give you a good idea of what our expectations are and what your task is; any further questions about the essay or essay writing can be directed to your tutor.
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Essay Writing
The usual structure of an essay is something like this:
- Title Page
- Abstract
- Introduction
- Main Text
- Conclusion
- References
What this all actually means will (hopefully) become clear as we explain the different dimensions of essay writing.
Purpose of the Essay
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to gain experience in scholarship (reading academic and other literature) and research (getting hold of primary data, "facts", and opinions by going directly to a source).
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to learn how to communicate your findings and conclusions in a structured, coherent manner, and to convey information and complex ideas in a clear, simple fashion.
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to develop your overall communication and analytical skills in the process of developing an expertise in a particular area of criminological enquiry.
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to become familiar with different viewpoints and perspectives on the world around us and to appreciate the strengths and weaknesses of these.
- to answer the question, making sure you maintain a coherent train of thought or line of argument.
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Structure of the Essay
(a) Planning stage
Students appear to run into difficulties in writing essays, simply because they have not devoted any preparatory time to devising a comprehensive plan prior to the writing up phase. A well thought out plan can be likened to a road directory; In the absence of a road map, the driver may manage to eventually find their way to their ultimate destination, but the journey may be unnecessarily long, complicated and exhausting. Working on the same principle, a well thought-out plan acts as a guide, facilitating ease of writing. At the planning stage, the following steps should be observed:
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look at the essay question, and ask yourself what it is actually asking. This seems like a simple task, but it is amazing how difficult determining the task can actually be. Determining the question involves matters of interpretation and clarification.
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do some background reading, but try to tailor your selection of library materials to the specifics of the essay question.
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jot down all the relevant ideas that come to mind and then attempt to sketch out a rough plan which collects those ideas into a logical and prioritised order.
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organise your main ideas or discussion points under a series of sub-headings. These can be used to guide the reader as you develop your discussion.
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refer back to your book and journal sources and take notes (preferably in your own words, so as to avoid the temptation to plagiarise). This should be done with a view to fleshing out the points raised in your brainstorming session.
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seek to develop each of your points into a brief explanatory paragraph.
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summarise your main ideas and overall theme or argument.
It is important to note that a plan is essential if you require some constructive feedback from tutors. Always endeavour to devise a rough plan prior to consulting with your tutor, as this will save time and assist the tutor in identifying problem areas and advising you appropriately with respect to overcoming them. Please note, tutors will be happy to review a plan, but unfortunately are not able to comment in relation to drafts.
(b) Abstract
This is a paragraph - not a page - summary of the major arguments and findings of your essay. This should be prepared last and should be used to highlight the arguments, not to describe the process "I did this, I did that ..." Consult a major criminological journal if you are still unsure of the correct conventions.
(c) Introduction
This is a critical section of the essay, as it sets the scene at the outset; that is, it introduces to the reader what you're talking about. A good opening paragraph clearly establishes the writer's main argument - the contention - and sets the parameters of the discussion. For instance, the subject area of prisons is quite broad, so you might narrow the scope by imposing a content restriction; for example, by looking at Victorian prisons only. Similarly, the scope of an essay may be narrowed by imposing a time-frame on the material for consideration. For example, "I will be looking at the media portrayals of crime between the months of January and July 1995". The other important element of a good introduction is the definition or clarification of key concepts or terms. Having completed the preliminary introductory tasks, your introduction should succinctly set out the broad theoretical and practical debates in a way that stimulates interest and offers promise.
(d) Main Text
Here you flesh out or develop the themes which have been raised in your introductory comments. The various paragraphs in your main body should directly relate to the discussion topic. Always remember to provide appropriate evidence to support your assertions. Furthermore, it is often useful to assess the validity of opposing views and then to endeavour to rebut or answer those arguments if possible. The essay should reflect your thinking and reading about an issue (so don't be afraid to use the word "I" once in a while).
A few (2 or 3) sub-headings throughout the essay are highly recommended, as they represent good visual aids, enabling the reader to easily identify the main direction of your argument. In addition, sub-headings assist you in organising your thoughts and material in a logical and coherent fashion. Be warned however, subheadings don't act as substitutes for logical fluidity; your paragraphs should link up in a fashion which indicates a progressive logical development.
(e) Conclusion
A concluding section draws together the main points of the essay and brings your arguments to a close in a forceful manner. A conclusion should reinforce the main thrust of the essay, briefly summarise the main points, and clearly convey your informed opinion about the subject matter.
New material or thoughts on an issue which have not been canvassed in the body of your essay should not be introduced into your conclusion.
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General Notes
Critical analysis
The term "critical" often conjures up images of "fault finding". However, in its original sense, and as used in academic writing, to criticise means to comment on the favourable as well as the unfavourable aspects of an argument and to judge the overall soundness and logic of a position. Tasks requiring critical analysis must move beyond the simply descriptive to the analytical or evaluative.
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Plagiarism
This is the unacknowledged reproduction of another's words which results in those words being presented as if they were one's own; This may be intentional or unintentional. At University level, plagiarism is a serious offence which can result in expulsion.
It is absolutely vital that in all instances other than those in which you are directly quoting, that you summarise another writer's thoughts in your own words. Your ability to summarise another's thoughts competently indicates to the reader that you've comprehended the material. Having summarised the materials into your own words, it is still necessary however to ensure that you've acknowledged the original author (see below).
Plagiarism may take several forms:
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Direct duplication, by copying the words of another's work, whether from a book, article or another person's assignment etc. without proper acknowledgement.
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Paraphrasing, by varying the words or ideas of another's work but retaining the essential meaning without proper acknowledgement.
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Summarising, by condensing the words or ideas of another's work, without proper acknowledgement.
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Cobbling, by piecing together sections of the words or ideas of another's work into a new whole, without proper acknowledgement.
Where a student is suspected of plagiarism by an examiner, the following procedures will apply:
The examiner will present the details to the Chair of the subject Examination Board (usually the Head of Department) who will determine whether to proceed with the matter; if the Chair determines to proceed, the student(s) will be invited to a hearing before the relevant subject Examination Board; if, after the hearing, the subject Examination Board is of the opinion that the student(s) has been guilty of plagiarism it may:
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require the student to undertake additional assessment in that subject;
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return a mark of zero for the piece of assessment;
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return a fail grade for the subject;
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refer the matter to the Dean regarding the possible presentation of a case of academic misconduct to a discipline committee under Statute 13.1.3;
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do more than one of the above.
In all cases where a penalty is applied to a student, a written notification will be sent by the Chair of the subject Examination Board to the Faculty Office.
The University’s statutes on assessment and academic misconduct define both plagiarism and the process by which this "academic misconduct" may be penalised.
For detailed information about plagiarism and academic honesty, visit the university's policy webpage on this matter at http://academichonesty.unimelb.edu.au/
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Referencing
Referencing must be thorough: you must acknowledge fully the source of all unoriginal ideas/concepts which you've been influenced by, or which you've drawn upon directly in the formulation of your arguments. This principle applies equally to material you've elicited from books, journals, newspapers, magazines, the internet, lectures and tutorials. Likewise, it applies to material you've paraphrased, that is, re-written in your own words, as well as that which you've directly quoted.
Always approach referencing with the view that the reader should be able to easily track down the source of all your ideas, from the name of the author right down to the page number of the books, article etc. To that end, it is advisable to ensure that while conducting the background reading in preparation for the actual writing of your essay, you keep accurate details relating to author, source, publication -year, company and location and the relevant pages from which material was drawn.
Accurate recording of such details at the time of consulting references will save you time (and sanity) at the writing stage.
For a very, very detailed guide to referencing, you should look for: Snooks & Co. Style manual for authors, editors and printers (rev. 6th ed.) Milton, Qld: John Wiley and Sons.
Consult your course coordinator if you are uncertain about which referencing methold is appropriate.
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Standard in-text referencing citations
1. One work by a single author
The surname of the author and the date of publication are given, for example:
Jones (1984) discussed the origin of deviant behaviour as a psychological disturbance.
In discussing the origin of deviant behaviour, Jones (1984) stated .....
The origin of deviant behaviour as a psychological disturbance has been explored at great length (Jones, 1984).
2. One work by two or more authors
(a) When a work has two authors, always cite both names every time the reference occurs in the text.
Jones and Smith (1985) also discussed .....
(b) When a work has more than two, but fewer than six authors, cite all authors the first time, then subsequently use the surname of the first author only, followed by "et al.".
Jones, Smith and Brown (1982) decided that ... (first citation)
Jones et al. (1982) decided that ... (subsequent citations)
(c) When a work has six or more authors, cite only the surname of the first author, followed by "et al.".
3. Two or more works within the same parentheses
(a) Two or more works by the same author are arranged by year of publication and separated by a comma.
Past research (Smith, 1979, 1980) .....
(b) Works by the same author which have the same publication date are identified by the suffixes a, b, c.
Several studies (Smith, 1979a, 1979b) indicated .....
(c) Two or more different authors are cited in alphabetical order, the citations being separated by a semicolon.
There is currently much discussion of how the legal system is and should be responding to death on the job (Carson and Johnstone, 1990; Maakestad, 1986; Reiner and Chatten-Brown, 1989; Wettenhall, 1988).
Citation of a work discussed in a secondary reference
Give the secondary source in the reference list and cite the original work with the secondary source in the text.
Neal's study (cited in Wettenhall, 1988) .....
Quotations
The author's name, the date of publication and the number of the page(s) on which the quotation is given are all stated. "Direct quotations of less than 3 lines should be acknowledged with inverted commas at the beginning and end of the quotation."
He stated "The effect of the ..... was significant" (Billings, 1992: 151).
Billings (1992) stated that "the effect of ..... was significant" (p. 151).
Billings (1992) stated:
The effect of..................................
.....................................................
.....................................................
.....................................................
which was significant (p. 151).
NOTE that direct quotations of more than three lines should be indented from the left hand margin, as above, and begin on a separate line. These quotations usually have more than one sentence in them. Note here that inverted commas are not used. Page numbers are optional if paraphrasing material.
Substantiation
When writing you should always work on the assumption that although intelligent, the reader is unfamiliar with the subject matter, so ensure that you provide appropriate detail and substantiation. All claims or assertions made by you throughout your essay should be substantiated, especially when making reference to supposed facts and figures. Substantiation lends weight and support to your ideas, so that they don't come across simply as generalisations or intuitive comments.
This can be achieved through directly quoting another's views which reinforce or concur with your own, or through the use of statistical data. Remember however, that your essay should not simply be comprised of a series of quotes; direct quotes should not be used to state your argument, but rather to support it. Avoid unnecessarily long quotes.
When making reference to statistics, ensure that they are the most contemporary ones available, as statistics quickly become outdated and therefore inaccurate. The exception to this rule is where you are seeking to draw comparisons between different time periods, and hence must refer to old statistics for illustrative purposes; to highlight trends, patterns, differences etc. Likewise, where possible, use Australian material in discussion of specific issues.
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Referencing Conventions in the Harvard Style
Order of references in a reference list
At the end of your essay, you should list in alphabetical order all the references that you have used in your essay. All sources appearing in your reference list must have been directly used in your essay and likewise there should not be any resources appearing in your essay which have not been cited in your reference list. A reference list differs from a bibliography in this respect.
NOTE: articles cited from the course reader are to be referenced in full (that is, do not refer to 'the course reader' as the source).
Entries should be arranged in alphabetical order, by the surname of the author(s) in the first instance. For example:
Carson, K.
Hopkins, A.
Wettenhall, G.A.
White, R.
Where there are several works by the same author, single-author entries precede multiple author entries beginning with the same surname. For example:
Polk, K. (1981)
Polk, K., Haines, F., and Perrone, S. (1994)
References with the same first author and a different second author are arranged alphabetically by the surname of the second author. For example:
Kaufman, J.R., Jones, K., and Cochman, D.F. (1978)
Kaufman, J.R., and Wong, D.F. (1988).
References by the same authors in the same order (or a single author) are arranged by year of publication. For example:
Kaufman, J.R., and Jones, K. (1977).
Kaufman, J.R., and Jones, K. (1988).
References by the same author with the same publication date are arranged alphabetically by title. They are referenced by the addition of lowercase letters (a, b, c, etc.) placed immediately after the year in brackets.
Braithwaite, J. (1983a).
Braithwatite, J. (1983b).
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Appropriate referencing styles for each source
NOTE: If the reference takes more than one line, the second line is indented 2 spaces [this effect has not been replicated on this web page]
Books
The following information needs to be included and formatted as follows:
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AUTHOR(S) OR EDITOR(S): Grabosky, P. and Sutton, A.
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PUBLICATION YEAR - IN BRACKETS: (1989),
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TITLE OF THE BOOK IN ITALICS OR UNDERLINED: Stains on a White Collar: Fourteen Studies in Corporate Crime or Corporate Harm.
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PLACE OF PUBLICATION: Sydney:
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PUBLISHER: Century Hutchinson.
Example:
Grabosky, P. and Sutton, A. (1989), Stains on a White Collar: Fourteen Studies in Corporate Crime or Corporate Harm. Sydney: Century Hutchinson.
Chapters in edited books
An article or chapter contained within an edited book is referenced by inclusion of both the author and title of the article and the editor(s) and the name of the book. Note, the page references must be given.
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CHAPTER AUTHOR: Hopkins, A.
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PUBLICATION YEAR - IN BRACKETS: (1989),
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CHAPTER TITLE - IN QUOTE MARKS, FOLLOWED BY 'in': "Crime without punishment: the Appin mine disaster" in
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EDITOR OF BOOK - FOLLOWED BY '(Ed.)' or '(Eds.): Grabosky, P. and Sutton, A. (Eds.)
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TITLE OF THE BOOK IN ITALICS OR UNDERLINED: Stains on a White Collar.
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PLACE OF PUBLICATION: Sydney:
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PUBLISHER: Century Hutchinson,
- PAGE NUMBERS - PRECEDED BY 'p' IF ONE PAGE OR 'pp': p 10; or pp 239-252.
Example:
Hopkins, A. (1989), "Crime without punishment: the Appin mine disaster" in Grabosky, P. and Sutton, A. (Eds.) Stains on a White Collar. Sydney: Century Hutchinson, pp 239-252.
Other factors relevant to book citation
(a) Where the author of a book is a corporate body, such as the National Institute of Mental Health, the book is included in the reference list as if National Institute of Mental Health were the author's name.
Example:
National Institute of Mental Health. (1981) Proceedings of ...
(b) Books without author or editor appear in alphabetical order by the first significant word in the title.
Example:
Psychology for all. (1984) New York: Academic Press
(c) If a book is one of which there are several editions, the edition number is included in the citation after the name of the book.
Example:
Jones, A.B. (Ed.). (1978), Psychology and you (3rd ed.) New York: Macmillan.
(d) If the book is a revised edition, Rev. ed. would follow the name of the book.
Example:
Nelson, B.R. (1997), Criminal Justice Research in Libraries and on the Internet. Rev. ed. Westport, CN: Greenwood Press.
Journals
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ARTICLE AUTHOR(S): Grabosky, P., and Wilson, P.
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PUBLICATION YEAR - IN BRACKETS - FOLLOWED BY A COMMA: (1987),
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ARTICLE TITLE - IN QUOTE MARKS: "The Myth of Community Tolerance Toward White-Collar Crime."
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TITLE OF THE JOURNAL IN ITALICS OR UNDERLINED: Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology
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VOLUME AND ISSUE NUMBER (some journals do not have issue numbers) - FOLLOWED BY A COLON: 20(2):
- PAGE NUMBERS - PRECEDED BY 'pp': pp33-44.
Example:
Grabosky, P., and Wilson, P. (1987). "The Myth of Community Tolerance Toward White-Collar Crime." Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 20(2): pp33-44.
Newspaper articles
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(WHEN NO AUTHOR NAMED) TITLE OF THE NEWSPAPER IN ITALICS OR UNDERLINED: The Age,
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DATE OF THE NEWSPAPER - IN BRACKETS: (1979, April 5)
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TITLE OF THE ARTICLE IN QUOTE MARKS: "Study finds free care used more",
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PAGE OF THE ARTICLE : p14.
Example:
The Age. (1979, April 5) "Study finds free care used more", p 14.
Magazine articles
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ARTICLE AUTHOR: Gardner, H.
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DATE OF PUBLICATION - IN BRACKETS: (1981, December)
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TITLE OF THE ARTICLE IN QUOTE MARKS: "Do babies sing a universal song?",
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TITLE OF THE MAGAZINE - IN ITALICS OR UNDERLINED: Psychology Today
- PAGE OF THE ARTICLE - PRECEDED BY 'pp': pp 70-76
Example:
Gardner, H. (1981, December) "Do babies sing a universal song?" Psychology Today, pp 70-76.
Conference papers
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PAPER AUTHOR: Young, A.
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TITLE OF PAPER IN ITALICS OR UNDERLINED: Who writes (illicitly)?: Naming the other
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EXPLANATORY NOTE (AS APPLICABLE): Paper presented (with Mark Halsey)
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CONFERENCE TITLE: 11th International Conference of the Law and Literature Association of Australia
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CONFERENCE LOCATION: Melbourne,
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CONFERENCE DATE: 29 November-1 December 2001.
Example:
Young, A. Who writes (illicitly)?: Naming the other. Paper presented (with Mark Halsey) at the 11th International Conference of the Law and Literature Association of Australia, Melbourne, 29 November-1 December 2001.
Citing Electronic Materials
With materials retrieved from the web, remember to apply the same standards that you would for conventional printed sources: clarity and consistency are paramount.
Webpages and web-hosted papers
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ARTICLE AUTHOR(S), EDITOR(S) OR COMPILER(S) (CORPORATE OR INDIVIDUAL): International Narcotics Control Board
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DOCUMENT CREATION DATE - IN BRACKETS: (1999)
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DOCUMENT TITLE IN ITALICS OR UNDERLINED: International Narcotics Control Board Report for 1998,
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NAME AND PLACE OF THE SPONSOR OF THE SITE: United Nations, Vienna,
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RETRIEVAL DATE: viewed 1 October 1999,
- COMPLETE WEBSITE URL ADDRESS IN ANGLE BRACKETS - PRECEDED BY 'from' FOLLOWED BY A FULL STOP:
from <http://www.incb.org/e/index.htm>.
Example of web paper:
International Narcotics Control Board (1999), International Narcotics Control Board Report for 1998, United Nations, Vienna, viewed 1 October 1999, from <http://www.incb.org/e/index.htm>.
NOTE: Generally, it is acceptable to give the URL for the homepage of the website only, but you must always endeavour to give sufficient information to allow easy retrieval of every document. Be particularly careful with accurately reproducing long URLs.
Online journals
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ARTICLE AUTHOR(S): Farabee, D., Haikang Shen, Yih-Ing Hser, Grella, C.E. and Anglin, D.
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ARTICLE CREATION DATE - IN BRACKETS: (2001)
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ARTICLE TITLE - IN QUOTE MARKS: "The effect of drug treatment on criminal behaviour among adolescents in DATOS-A",
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TITLE OF THE JOURNAL IN ITALICS OR UNDERLINED: Journal of Adolescent Research,
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VOLUME AND CHAPTER NUMBERS: 16(6)
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DATE RETRIEVED/VIEWED: viewed 17 July 2003
- WEBSITE ADDRESS (URL) IN ANGLE BRACKETS: from <http://ww.buffy.lib.unimelb.edu.au/>.
Example:
Farabee, D., Haikang Shen, Yih-Ing Hser, Grella, C.E. and Anglin, D. (2001), "The effect of drug treatment on criminal behaviour among adolescents in DATOS-A", Journal of Adolescent Research, 16(6), viewed 17 July 2003 from <http://ww.buffy.lib.unimelb.edu.au/>
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Procedures involving the Essay
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papers are to be printed or typed double-spaced (or neatly printed) on A4 paper, using one side of the paper only, and leaving a wide margin on both sides. When printing, please use an easy-to-read font such as Times at 12 point size.
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remember to put page numbers on the essay.
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keep a duplicate copy of your essay and of any other work submitted for evaluation.
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use a cover sheet (downloadable but also available from the front office) and include the complete title of your essay, your name, student number, your tutor's name and tutorial time.
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please do not encase each page of an assignment in plastic; the most acceptable presentation is simply a staple in the top, left-hand corner of the essay.
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no responsibility will be taken for essays placed under the front door or under individual staff doors.
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applications for extensions for the submission of written work should be completed on the form available at the front desk, and should be passed to your tutor in the first instance. Applications for extensions should be completed before the due date for the assignment.
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Late submissions without extension approval will be penalised by a 5% per working day reduction in the maximum marks awarded for the assignment. Assignments submitted without extension approval more than two weeks after the deadline will be given a fail grade (0).
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Extensions need to be arranged in advance of work deadlines. Attach the extension form (also available from the criminology general office) to your work after getting the form signed by your tutor or lecturer.
- Students experiencing difficulties with their assessment should see their tutor as early as possible.
Proof Reading
Always proof read your essay prior to submitting it, preferably at least one day after having completed it. Proof reading ensures that you detect all grammatical, spelling, punctuation and typographical errors. It's also an idea to have a second person who will be brutally honest to read over your work and provide you with some feedback.
Don't worry if that person is not familiar with the subject area - all the better. While they may not be able to advise you as to the content, they can provide invaluable comment on matters of expression, logical fluidity, and persuasiveness of your argument.
Make sure that the language used in your essay is gender-neutral and avoid the use of sexist and racist terminology, except as an illustration of an argument or as the focus of analysis itself.
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